The concept of the automobile, a self-propelled vehicle for transportation, has captured human imagination for centuries. While modern cars are dominated by internal combustion engines, the story of the first car is more nuanced and electrically charged than many realize. To truly understand the genesis of personal transportation, we must journey back to the 19th century, an era of remarkable innovation and experimentation that laid the groundwork for the vehicles we drive today. This exploration will reveal not just the pioneering inventions, but also the surprising early prominence of electric power in the automotive world.
The Earliest Concepts of Self-Propelled Vehicles
Before the roar of gasoline engines became synonymous with cars, the quest for personal mobility was underway, driven by steam and electricity. The late 1700s witnessed the emergence of steam-powered vehicles, demonstrating the feasibility of self-propulsion. However, these early steam cars, while groundbreaking, were far from practical for everyday use. They were cumbersome, required lengthy start-up times, and demanded frequent water refills, limiting their range and convenience. Imagine waiting 45 minutes on a cold morning just to get your vehicle started – this was the reality with early steam automobiles.
The search for a more efficient and user-friendly power source led inventors to electricity. The 1800s became a crucible of electrical discovery, with pivotal advancements in battery technology and electric motors. Across continents, in Hungary, the Netherlands, and the United States, inventive minds began toying with the idea of battery-powered carriages. Figures like the Vermont blacksmith and other unsung innovators started crafting rudimentary electric cars, marking the initial sparks of an electric automotive revolution.
The Dawn of Practical Electric Cars in the 19th Century
While the very first attempts at electric vehicles were small-scale and experimental, the latter half of the 19th century saw a significant leap forward. British inventor Robert Anderson is credited with developing a crude electric carriage around the 1830s. However, it was inventors in France and England who truly refined the concept and built some of the first practical electric cars. These weren’t just novelties; they were becoming viable transportation options, especially within urban environments.
Across the Atlantic, in the United States, innovation was also brewing. Around 1890, William Morrison, a chemist residing in Des Moines, Iowa, achieved a milestone by creating the first successful electric car in America. His vehicle, capable of carrying six passengers and reaching a top speed of 14 miles per hour, was essentially an electrified wagon. Despite its basic nature, Morrison’s invention played a crucial role in igniting public interest in electric vehicles within the U.S.
The late 1890s witnessed a surge in electric vehicle development and production. Various automakers began introducing their electric models across the United States. New York City even embraced electric mobility, establishing a fleet of over 60 electric taxis, demonstrating the practical application of this technology in urban transportation. By the turn of the 20th century, electric cars had reached their zenith. Remarkably, they constituted approximately one-third of all vehicles on American roads around 1900, showcasing their early dominance in the burgeoning automotive landscape. Sales remained robust throughout the subsequent decade, solidifying the electric car’s position as a major player in personal transportation.
The Golden Age and Subsequent Decline of Electric Vehicles
To fully appreciate the initial popularity of electric vehicles at the dawn of the 20th century, it’s essential to consider the broader context of personal transportation development and the alternatives available at the time. Horses were still the dominant mode of transport as the century began. However, as prosperity grew, people increasingly turned to the newly invented motor vehicle, which came in steam, gasoline, and electric variants.
Steam technology, proven reliable in factories and trains, was a familiar energy source. Early self-propelled vehicles in the late 1700s utilized steam, but its adoption in personal cars was slow until the 1870s. Steam cars suffered from significant drawbacks for personal use: long start times and limited range due to water requirements.
While electric cars were emerging, gasoline-powered cars, propelled by advancements in internal combustion engines during the 1800s, also entered the market. Gasoline cars, while promising, had their own set of problems. They were manually demanding to operate, gear changes were complex, and starting them involved a hand crank, making them challenging for some drivers. Furthermore, they were noisy and produced unpleasant exhaust fumes.
Electric cars offered compelling advantages over both steam and gasoline vehicles. They were quiet, easy to drive, and emitted no pollutants, unlike their contemporaries. Urban dwellers, particularly women, quickly embraced electric cars. They were ideal for short city trips, and the poor road conditions beyond city limits restricted the practicality of all types of cars for long journeys. As electricity access expanded in the 1910s, charging electric cars became more convenient, further boosting their popularity among diverse segments of society. Even “the best known and prominent makers of gasoline cars” acknowledged the appeal of electric vehicles, as noted in a 1911 New York Times article.
Recognizing the strong demand for electric vehicles, innovators actively sought to enhance the technology. Ferdinand Porsche, the founder of the renowned sports car company, developed an electric car named the P1 in 1898. Around the same period, he pioneered the world’s first hybrid electric car, combining electric and gasoline power. Thomas Edison, a prolific inventor, championed electric vehicles as the superior technology and dedicated efforts to improving electric car batteries. Even Henry Ford, Edison’s friend, collaborated with him in 1914 to explore the potential of a low-cost electric car, according to Wired.
However, it was Henry Ford’s mass-produced Model T, introduced in 1908, that ultimately dealt a significant blow to the electric car’s dominance. The Model T made gasoline cars widely accessible and affordable. By 1912, a gasoline car cost only $650, while an electric roadster was priced at $1,750. That same year, Charles Kettering’s invention of the electric starter eliminated the cumbersome hand crank, further boosting the appeal and sales of gasoline-powered vehicles.
Other factors contributed to the decline of electric cars. By the 1920s, improved road networks in the U.S. encouraged longer journeys, creating demand for vehicles with greater range. The discovery of abundant and cheap Texas crude oil made gasoline readily available and affordable, particularly in rural areas, and gas stations began to proliferate. In contrast, electricity was still not widely available outside of cities at that time. Consequently, electric vehicles largely disappeared by 1935, eclipsed by the convenience and affordability of gasoline cars.
Resurgence of Interest Fueled by Fuel Crises and Environmental Concerns
For approximately three decades, electric vehicles entered a period of relative obscurity, with limited technological progress. The abundance of cheap gasoline and continuous improvements in internal combustion engines dampened demand for alternative fuel vehicles.
The late 1960s and early 1970s marked a turning point. Soaring oil prices and gasoline shortages, culminating in the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo, sparked renewed interest in reducing U.S. dependence on foreign oil and exploring domestic fuel sources. In response, Congress passed the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976, authorizing the Energy Department to support research and development in electric and hybrid vehicles.
Around this time, both major and smaller automakers began investigating alternative fuel vehicle options, including electric cars. General Motors, for instance, developed a prototype urban electric car showcased at the Environmental Protection Agency’s First Symposium on Low Pollution Power Systems Development in 1973. American Motor Company produced electric delivery jeeps for a 1975 United States Postal Service test program. Even NASA contributed to raising the profile of electric vehicles when its electric Lunar rover became the first manned vehicle to traverse the moon in 1971.
However, electric vehicles developed in the 1970s still faced performance limitations compared to gasoline cars. They typically had lower top speeds, around 45 miles per hour, and limited ranges, usually about 40 miles before requiring recharging.
The 1990s brought another wave of renewed interest, this time driven by growing environmental concerns. Two decades after the gasoline shortages of the 1970s, public attention to electric vehicles had waned. However, new federal and state regulations began to reshape the landscape. The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment and the 1992 Energy Policy Act, along with stricter transportation emissions regulations from the California Air Resources Board, reignited interest in electric vehicles in the U.S.
During this period, automakers started adapting some of their existing models into electric versions. This resulted in electric vehicles with improved speeds and performance, more closely approaching gasoline-powered cars, and many offered ranges of around 60 miles.
One of the most prominent electric cars of this era was GM’s EV1, famously featured in the 2006 documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? Unlike simply electrifying an existing model, GM designed and developed the EV1 from the ground up. With an 80-mile range and acceleration from 0 to 50 miles per hour in just seven seconds, the EV1 gained a dedicated following. However, high production costs ultimately rendered it commercially unviable, and GM discontinued it in 2001.
Despite a booming economy, a growing middle class, and low gasoline prices in the late 1990s, consumer focus remained largely on conventional vehicles. Even with limited public attention, scientists and engineers, supported by the Energy Department, continued to work behind the scenes to advance electric vehicle technology, particularly batteries.
A 21st Century Electric Vehicle Renaissance
While the intermittent progress of the electric vehicle industry in the latter half of the 20th century demonstrated the technology’s potential, the true resurgence of electric vehicles began around the start of the 21st century. Two key events are often credited with sparking the current wave of electric vehicle interest.
The introduction of the Toyota Prius is widely considered a major turning point. Launched in Japan in 1997 and globally in 2000, the Prius became the world’s first mass-produced hybrid electric vehicle. Its instant popularity, especially among celebrities, significantly raised the profile of hybrid technology. Toyota utilized nickel metal hydride batteries in the Prius, a technology supported by Energy Department research. Rising gasoline prices and growing concerns about carbon pollution have since propelled the Prius to become the best-selling hybrid worldwide for over a decade.
(Historical note: Honda’s Insight hybrid, released in the U.S. in 1999, preceded the Prius, marking the first hybrid sold in the U.S. since the early 1900s.)
The second pivotal event was the 2006 announcement by Tesla Motors, a Silicon Valley startup, of its plan to produce a luxury electric sports car capable of exceeding 200 miles on a single charge. In 2010, Tesla received a $465 million loan from the Department of Energy’s Loan Programs Office to establish a manufacturing facility in California. Tesla repaid this loan nine years ahead of schedule and has since gained widespread acclaim and become California’s largest auto industry employer.
Tesla’s announcement and subsequent success motivated major automakers to accelerate their own electric vehicle programs. In late 2010, the Chevy Volt and Nissan LEAF were launched in the U.S. market. The Volt, the first commercially available plug-in hybrid, combined an electric drive with a gasoline engine for extended range. The LEAF, an all-electric vehicle (or battery-electric vehicle, EV), relied solely on electric power.
Over the following years, more automakers introduced electric vehicles in the U.S. Addressing the early challenge of charging infrastructure, the Energy Department invested over $115 million through the Recovery Act to build a nationwide charging network, installing over 18,000 chargers across the country. Automakers and private businesses also expanded charging infrastructure, resulting in over 8,000 public charging locations with more than 20,000 outlets today.
Simultaneously, advancements in battery technology, supported by the Energy Department’s Vehicle Technologies Office, improved the range of plug-in electric vehicles. Department research contributed to the development of lithium-ion battery technology used in the Volt and other EVs, building upon earlier work in nickel metal hydride batteries for hybrids. Investments in battery research and development have led to a 50% reduction in electric vehicle battery costs in the past four years, while also enhancing battery performance, including power, energy, and durability. This cost reduction has made electric vehicles more accessible to consumers.
Today, consumers have a wider selection of electric vehicles than ever before. There are currently 23 plug-in electric and 36 hybrid models available, ranging from compact cars to luxury SUVs. As gasoline prices continue to rise and electric vehicle prices become more competitive, electric vehicles are gaining popularity, with over 234,000 plug-in electric vehicles and 3.3 million hybrids currently on U.S. roads.
The Road Ahead for Electric Cars
Predicting the precise future trajectory of electric vehicles is challenging, but their potential for a more sustainable future is undeniable. Transitioning all light-duty vehicles in the U.S. to hybrids or plug-in electric vehicles using existing technology could reduce foreign oil dependence by 30-60% and decrease transportation sector carbon pollution by up to 20%.
To facilitate these emissions reductions, President Obama launched the EV Everywhere Grand Challenge in 2012, an Energy Department initiative aimed at making plug-in electric vehicles as affordable as gasoline-powered vehicles by 2022. The Department’s Joint Center for Energy Storage Research at Argonne National Laboratory is addressing the scientific and technical barriers to large-scale battery improvements.
Furthermore, the Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) is investing in transformative technologies that could revolutionize electric vehicles, from new battery chemistries for extended range to cost-effective alternatives for critical electric motor materials.
Ultimately, the future path of electric vehicles will unfold over time. However, their journey from early experiments to a rapidly growing market segment underscores their enduring appeal and increasing importance in the evolving landscape of personal transportation.
